Cyfrowa Etnografia

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QUARTERLY PUBLISHED BY THE A R T INSTITUTE

N. 4

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OF T H E P O L I S H

Y E A R BOOK X I V

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ACADAMY

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SCIENCES

I960

SUMMMARY O F A R T I C L E S

Olga Mulkiewicz
— SOME PROBLEMS CONCERNING KIELCE WOOD-CARVING
I n contrast to f u l l figure sculpture i n wood,
w h i c h was found throughout the whole of Poland,
decorative sculpture only appeared i n certain districts.
U n t i l recently the only k n o w n centre of this craft
was Podhale. Recent research has brought to light
some valuable and interesting decorative woodcarving i n Kielce Voivodship. I t was confined here
to one group of objects forming traditional gifts from
boys to girls. These were m a i n l y distaffs, shuttles etc.
carved w i t h a knife i n poplar, aspen, birch or p l u m .
Sometimes a lathe was used. For decoration straight
(fig. 4) and circular incisions were used sparingly
and the techniques of straight (fig. 1) and wedge
shaving (a framework for the space to be decorated
and motifs f i l l i n g
this space — f i g . 3) were
widespread. I n the composition of the ornamentation
geometrical stripes predominate; more rarely plant
motifs appear and animal motifs are an exception.
Sometimes one finds decorative motifs taken from
Christian symbolism, such as crosses or hearts.
Ornamentation was not used equally over the
whole surface of the object. I n shuttles the pointed
ends were decorated, i n the distaff also only certain
parts. Kielce wood-carving is a quite individual
phenomenon, differing f r o m the wood-carving of
neighbouring districts as w e l l as from that of Western
Poland. Certain similarities of technique are r e m i n i scent of the wood-carving of the Opole region and
the Carpathians, but i n relation to these the carvings
from Kielce represents an earlier stage of development,
both from the point of view of technique and the
simple character of the ornamentation, as w e l l as
the freedom of composition.
Plant motifs appear here i n a very early stage of
development, entirely w i t h o u t influence of historical
styles. Kielce wood-carving also preserves its o w n
individual character when compared to wood-carving
from neighbouring countries.
Jerzy
Czajkowski
BEEHIVES

—

DECORATED

BOX-TYPE

Of a l l the forms of hives used i n beekeeping,
box-type hives are the most recent and became
widespread only from the end of the 19th century
onwards. Made of planks and set on four short legs,
these box hives are mostly covered by a simple
sloping roof w i t h two sides, or sometimes one w i t h
four sides or a semi-circular one. Decorative ten-

254

dencies occasionally appear i n the overall design of
the hive (fig. 1), i n ornamentation w i t h architectural
elements, and often there are carved
ornaments
(fig. 3) o r relief sculptures fastened to the w a l l s of
the hive, mostly near the opening. These ornaments,
as w e l l as the incised decorations have been transferred to the new box hives from the older type of
hollowed block hive (fig. 2 and 3) and figurines of
people, eagles, geese, owls and cocks were intended
to protect the hive from thieves and also to increase
the yield of honey by some magical means. (In folk
magic the cock, for example, appears as a fertility
symbol).
Today the magical element of this imagery has
disappeared, but the decorative element has remained.
The painting of hives i n several colours is far more
widespread than carved decorations. I t was thought
that this w o u l d make i t easier for bees to find their
way back to the proper hive. Although i t is k n o w n
today that this is not so, painting is s t i l l used to
preserve the wood and improve the appearance of
the hive.
On the basis of k n o w n material i t is possible to
distinguish various types of decorative painting, the
most often found including hives where different
walls are painted i n different colours, i.e. the front
blue, the sides b r o w n or white, the border and small
ledge of the entry hole being picked out i n a different colour. I n the second type geometrical designs
appear on a single-colour background (figs. 6, 7, 8).
Another type consists of hives Whose surface is
decorated w i t h plant or animal motifs, treated i n
a geometrical manner (fig. 9) or schematised (figs.
10, 11). Sometimes geometrical and plant motifs
appear side by side. One can also come across
beehives painted to resemble houses ( w i t h painted
windows, the outline of brick foundations — fig. 12 —
and walls i m i t a t i n g stone). Colours most often used
are blue, green, yellow and red. One can also find
brown, white, black, pink, violet and others.
A n interesting development may be observed in
these painted beehives: a new branch of decorative
folk art is beginning to evolve from the straightforward application of paint for mainly practical
purposes.
Anna Kunczynska
— T H E M A N OF SORROWS I N
POLISH FOLK SCULPTURE
The carved effigies of the "Man of Sorrows" are
among the finest achievements of Polish folk art.

The theme appeared even i n late gothic devotional
effigies, later i n the folk art of central and p a r t l y
also of eastern and western Europe. Even earlier,
however, w e f i n d related representations of a seated
figure w i t h a similar formal appearance, and the
tradition extended far beyond Christian iconography
(Greek, Etruscan, Asiatic and Indonesian art). One
may conjecture that the M a n of Sorrows represents
a new interpretation of an o l d symbol of care and
meditation. One m a y also conjecture (Prof. Moszyń­
ski) that folk art, d r a w i n g on pagan traditions,
combined i n the figure of the M a n of Sorrows the
effigy of the o l d gods w i t h the new Christian God.
A deep human emotional content, contributed to
the popularity of this image, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Poland,
where i t expressed the people's own cares, sufferings
and oppression, and thus achieved a new artistic
force.
I n Poland the M a n of Sorrows appeared at the
t u r n of the 15th and 16th centuries i n a l l three
iconographic variants k n o w n i n Western Europe (in
the scenes 'Waiting for the Crucifixion', 'Santa Converzatione' and i n the free-standing carved devotio­
n a l effigy). Models were taken above a l l from German
art, and since L o w e r Silesia represented particularly
strong links w i t h that art, one may conjecture that
it played an i m p o r t a n t role i n the popularisation of
the M a n of Sorrows i n Poland.
I n the M i d d l e Ages isolated devotional images of
the M a n of Sorrows appeared a l l over Poland i n
more or less the same iconographic conception (fig.
1, 2). The were a l l f u l l figure sculptures i n wood, up
to one metre high, placed inside churches or mona­
steries. As essential role i n the spread of the cult of
the M a n of Sorrows was played by the mysticism
developing i n the Franciscan, Dominican and Bernardine monasteries.
I n Renaissance art the M a n of Sorrows is rare.
Effigies that have been preserved do not add any
new elements to the gothic conception and they may
be ascribed to a belated survival of the gothic t r a ­
dition.
During the Baroque period
monasteries
continued to promote the c u l t and i n the 17th century
the effigy began to appear i n wayside chapels and
images. I n the Baroque period, too, we find the first
effigies of the M a n of Sorrows i n a royal cloak,
holding a reed-sceptre (an association w i t h 'Ecce
Homo').
I n the 17th and 18th centuries the craftsmen w h o
made
these images came m a i n l y from
among
provincial wood-carvers, w h o took over forms from
the t u r n of the 15th and 16th centuries as w e l l as
late gothic iconographic traditions. They began to
concentrate on the expression of the face — w h i c h
was later to be the characteristic feature of 19th
century folk sculptures.
I t is difficult to say w h e n the M a n of Sorrows
first appeared i n Polish folk art. Certain features of
transition to folk a r t are already apparent i n examples
from the 16th century, w h i l e certain 18th century
sculptures may be regarded
as the immediate
predecessors of the 19th century holy folk images.
Basically the f u l l y formed folk interpretation of
the M a n of Sorrows is mainly k n o w n from 19th
century examples. Most often i t repeats the gothic
schematised image of the devotional effigy. I n the
Rzeszów Voivodship there are iconographic variants
differing i n the w a y the hands are held (figs. 6, 7).
The royal cloak and sceptre k n o w n from the Baroque
is also met w i t h i n Poland. A variant departing
radically from traditional patterns is the figure of
Christ clad i n a long robe (particularly typical for
K u r p i e — figs. 8), or i n male apparel (figs. 11, 14).

I n folk art the M a n of Sorrows became an
independent iconographic type, only losely connected
w i t h the Passion, i n contrast to the gothic effigies.
I n the imagination of the folk artist several icono­
graphic types mingle i n the M a n of Sorrows to form
a symbol of mercy and p i t y for the suffering. The
immage appears a l l over southern, south-eastern as
w e l l as central Poland. I t is not found i n the n o r t h —
in Pomorze this is no doubt due to Protestant
influence.
I n folk painting the M a n of Sorrows played
almost no role, although the image was popular i n
folk woodcuts.
Although i n d i v i d u a l images of one iconographic
type show no divergence, a formal analysis clearly
shows characteristic regional variants. The author
distinguishes two groups from Podhale — 1 (figs.
18, 19) effigies of Christ i n a royal cloak, distinguished
by the frontal presentation and compact, flat form
of the sceptre. Group 2 (fig. 20) is connected w i t h
Slovak sculptures. The M a n of Sorrows is represented
crouching i n an abyss, w i t h a c r o w n of thorns and
a triple-rayed nimbus on his head. The southern
L u b l i n group (figs. 21, 22, 23) is characterised by the
spacious treatment of the muscular figure of Christ,
represented crouching i n an abyss w i t h a crown of
thorns. The L u b l i n sculptures are linked by general
similarities, presumably resulting from the existence
of some common original model.
T w o Rzeszów groups — 1 the Krosno School
(figs. 24, 25) groups together sculptures showing an
analogical decorative treatment of the hair, back,
arms and legs. Group 2 — from the neighbourhood
of Jasło, Krosno, Sanok and Rzeszów is character­
ised by the enlarged head, feet and hands (figs. 6, 7).
The Upper Silesian group (fig. 26), undoubtedly
connected w i t h the original Baroque model, repre­
sents Christ i n a royal cloak, forming a k i n d of
background for his figure, and holding a reed in
his hand.
The K u r p i e group (figs. 8, 9) is distinguished by
a complete departure from the content of the Passion,
and represents the M a n of Sorrows i n a long flowing
robe, leaning back i n a chair.
The Mazowsze group — l a collection of sculptures
from near Płock, must have been modelled on the
gothic sculpture i n the church at Długosiele. The
second group of sculptures (figs. 27, 28) shows Christ
as a slender figure w i t h a heavy plaited crown of
thorns.
Franciszek

Kotula

— M O D E R N F U N E R A L URNS

The article describes excavations carried out by
A. Jaroch, an inhabitant of the village of Wyszatyce,
P r z e m y ś l district. His f i n d consisted of a large number
of broken clay pots, containing bones from the
skeletons of small children. This must undoubtedly
have been a cemetery for unchristened children
and the small chapel standing there as w e l l as two
coins from the year 1761 show its 18th century
origin. The vessels dug up belong to folk majolica,
similar to the Rzeszów finds of 15th and 17th
century origin.
Most of the jugs were covered w i t h a white
substance which under the influence of some dye
took on different colours: grey (fig. 2, 5) light blue
(fig. 3) yellowish (fig. 4). Only t w o vessels (figs. 6
and 7) were the natural red colour of clay. On the
main body of the pots is a painted coloured
ornamentation w h i c h w o u l d seem to support the
supposition that the vessels date back to the 18th
century.

255

Aleksander
Jackowski
— THE DECORATIVE MOTIF
A N D T H E P R O B L E M OF A D A P T A T I O N I N F O L K
ART.
The article is an attempt to formulate a c r i t i c i s m
of the mechanical adaptation of folk motifs. At the
beginning the author analyses the underlying p r i n ciples of ornamentation, the inner logic of its
application and its role i n traditional folk art. Decorative motifs appeared i n i t only i n certain conditions.
Ornamentation was intimately connected w i t h the
object, its function and form. I t emphasised its
structure and plastic character (figs. 3—7). I t was
dependant on the nature of the material, tools,
technique. I t appeared i n a definite context and i f
torn from this and transferred to some other object,
would change its inner character.
A frequent mistake w h i c h arises i n the adaptation
of folk ornament is the separation of a single motif
from the whole and treating i t as an independent
element. The effect is that the object „ d e c o r a t e d "
w i t h folk motifs altogether loses its folk character.
I t is enough to change the scale, for the effect to be
completely different (figs. 7—9).
I n folk a r t every form, every motif has its o w n
proper role, scale and proportion, i n relationship to
the other parts. The measure of this relationship is
man. Perfection of proportion and the m u t u a l
relations of form causes folk a r t to impress itself
on us as an artistic whole, determined by its o w n
inner laws.
What theory is for the trained artist, to the folk
artist was the experience passed on from generation
to
generation, and confirmed by practice. The
discipline o f plastic thought was formed by tradition,
constant use of the material, the tools and above
all — the object itself. For the folk artist was at
the same t i m e designer, craftsman and user of his
own product.
The situation changed i n the second half of the
19th century, w h e n as a result of economic and social
development folk culture began to lose some of its
integrity. Side by side w i t h i t , examples of urban
culture appeared i n t h e countryside, and together
w i t h them different ambitions, different aesthetic
needs. To an ever greater degree the c i t y became
the consumer of folk art. B u t this new relationship
was burdened by already existing tastes, formed by
decorative tendencies towards the end of last century.
This was the period of electicism, and just as styles
and motifs were transferred to buildings and products
of the time w i t h o u t any understanding, so motifs from
folk art were a r b i t r a r i l y put together to f o r m an
absurd whole (fig. 15), or folk a r t products were
deprived of their functional purpose (fig. 14).
The author then goes on to discuss the origin
and role of the so-called "Zakopane style", showing
that i n spite of the efforts of trained artists, the o l d
mistaken theories persist to this day — theories
according to w h i c h the decorative m o t i f „in itself"
decides about the folk or national character of the
work. Certain motifs s i m p l y became symbols — the
cock of the paper-cut almost became an unofficial
national coat of arms. Hence i n the w o r k of trained
artists folk motifs are also often used as ashorthand
sign, a symbol. Certain lovers and promoters of folk
art see i n the motif the source of national art, the
specific character of a region, and even publish
designs — of embroidery for example — to be
adapted.
The author shows that this only promotes folk
art i n a very superficial manner, but i n fact undermines its very existence, destroys the tradition of
disciplined thought, the principles of good craftsmanship.

This problem has become particularly important
now, w h e n folk artists are themselves w o r k i n g for
the urban consumer and thus have to adapt the
traditional crafts to new needs ,and even to create
new objects, not k n o w n and not used i n their own
milieu. Numerous examples show that attempts at
adaptation are often undertaken mechanically, and
run counter to the traditional discipline of plastic
thought. The author discusses several examples of
this and shows that i n this situation the role of the
trained artist-adviser is p a r t i c u l a r l y important, as is
te role of juries at folk a r t or regional souvenir competitions and also the proper formulation of p r i n c i p les. Where these principles are i n agreement w i t h
the experience of the folk artist, i t w i l l be easier
for h i m to f i n d a solution close to tradition and
at the same time purposeful, functional.

Michal Maslinski
— F O L K D E C O R A T I V E FORGED
IRON W O R K (REFLECTIONS A R I S I N G O U T A
POST-COMPETITION D I S P L A Y I N CRACOW)
There are insufficient facts to show w h e n original
folk decorative forged iron w o r k , not subject to the
norms of guild production, first made its appearance.
The oldest of the relics known to us come from
Silesia and go back to the 18th century. The iron
w o r k shows remarkable independence of the i n f l u ences of official art and its styles. A greater influence
was exerted by adjacent industrial centres, particul a r l y cast-iron foundries whose presence hampered
the development of forged iron w o r k . Nevertheless
the craft remained alive throughout the whole of the
19th century and i n some areas even d u r i n g the
i n t e r - w a r period. The decline of this sphere of folk
art came together w i t h the disintegration of t r a d i tional folk culture: the countryside simply ceased
to have any use for the traditional forged i r o n decorations.
I n order to investigate the present creative talents
of village blacksmiths the Section for Research into
Folk A r t of the Polish Academy of Sciences' Institute
of A r t and the C u l t u r a l Department of the Cracow
Voivodship Council organised a competition of decorative forged i r o n w o r k i n A p r i l , followed by an exhibition of w o r k submitted. As many as 43 blacksmiths took part and also a few artisans whose w o r k
was however outside the scope of the competition,
as i t departed from the traditions of folk i r o n w o r k .
The exhibition was i n two sections — the first i n cluded w o r k of a traditional character (about 50 per
cent: fig. 2, 8, 9) and the second exhibits made for
urban use (fig. 10, 13).
The author discusses the technique of the w o r k
in general and the decorative processes appearing
in folk forged iron work. He asserts that the exhibition showed the high artistic level of t r a d i t i o n a l
forms (for instance the iron fitting for a cart-shaft
(fig. 2, 8). Worse results can be observed i n the
exhibits intended for urban use. I n many cases these
showed an attempt to transfer traditional motifs to
a new function) i . e. the small dog from an i r o n
cart-fitting used as a decoration for an ashtray —
fig. 13).
Pointing out that these unsuccessful attempts are
due to difficulties arising out of changed tasks, the
author of the article expresses the hope that further
experience w i l l lead to better results.
The exhibition was very w e l l attented. I t aroused
great interest among blackmiths as w e l l as artists
and teachers from vocational schools, w h o urged
that such displays should be arranged more frequently.

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